My Research
Dr. Abdullah Alamer is an Assistant Professor of the psychology of language learning. His areas of expertise include second language motivation, anxiety, and the psychology of learning in general. He is also interested using structural equation modeling (SEM) by providing scientific guidelines for using this method. His works appeared in the top journals in the field including Applied Linguistics published by the University of Oxford and Studies in Second Language Acquisition published by the University of Cambridge. He has recently authored a new psychological theory referred to as “autonomous single language interest” which has been published in System
2023
The study of language learners’ motivation has long been considered a key, determining factor of success in second/foreign language acquisition. Based on self-determination theory (SDT), the more autonomously motivated learners are, the better they engage in an activity. To sustain autonomous motivation, the learners’ basic psychological needs (BPN) of autonomy, competence, and relatedness should be satisfied. Nevertheless, the role of these three components and their relation to autonomous motivation in the mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) context has not yet been addressed in the literature. Therefore, a social networking mobile application (WhatsApp) has been used to explore how teachers’ informal use of such an application relates to an increase in students’ motivation. A quasi-experimental design was adopted for two groups of Saudi university students enrolled in the English language department at two major universities (N = 447). The structural model revealed a significant improvement in the effects of Time 1 autonomy on Time 2 autonomous motivation as well as in the effects of Time 1 autonomous motivation on Time 2 autonomous motivation exclusively in the experimental group. The two-time repeated measure of ANOVA substantiated the increase in autonomous motivation exclusively among students in the experimental group. This study contributed to greater recognition of the advantages and challenges of applying WhatsApp as a tool of MALL in the educational system.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Al Khateeb, A. (2023). Effects of using the WhatsApp application on language learners motivation: A controlled investigation using structural equation modelling. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36, 149–175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1903042
Although studies have consistently found negative correlations between second lan- guage (L2) anxiety and L2 achievement, the anxiety concept is criticized for the fail- ure to consider confounding variables, particularly first language (L1) achievement, in the relationship between language anxiety and language achievement. Also, past studies tend to rely on cross-sectional data to conclude causality. To assess long- term causal relationships between L1 and L2 achievement, the study used structural equation modeling to examine pathways by which L1 achievement is associated with L2 reading anxiety after two years via several mediators: L1 working mem- ory, L1 print exposure, and L1 metalinguistic knowledge; L2 aptitude (MLAT); and L2 reading, writing, and listening comprehension. Students (n=293) in a U.S. secondary school were administered these measures and followed through first-year Spanish. Findings showed the effect of L1 achievement on later L2 reading anxiety was direct and indirect through L2 aptitude, L2 achievement, and L1 metalinguis- tic knowledge. Effects of L2 achievement and L1 metalinguistic knowledge on L2 reading anxiety were direct. An out-of-sample analysis for model prediction power supported the external validity of the study results. We recommend that teachers and learners deal with L1/L2 skills, rather than anxiety per se, in order to reduce sense of L2 reading anxiety.
Citation: Sparks, R., & Alamer, A. (2023). How does first language achievement impact second language reading anxiety? Exploration of mediator variables. Reading and Writing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10410-2
2022
Background: Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) has long been advocated to promote students’ language study outcomes. However, little is known about how using instant messaging applications (an example of MALL) affect student motivation, language anxiety, and actual achievement. Objectives: To help close this gap, we have conducted a quasi-experimental study, in which we have used self-determination theory to test a mediational process model, in an effort to understand the psychological mechanisms that underlie the effect of instant messaging applications on student outcomes. Methods: Two groups of Saudi undergraduate students (N = 447) were recruited to participate in the study. Participants under the experimental condition were invited to engage in language-related tasks with their teacher outside of class through the WhatsApp application, whereas participants under the control condition received standard teaching. We applied partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) to test our model. Results and Conclusions: The results of the PLS-SEM showed that the total effects of using instant messaging applications on autonomous motivation and L2 achieve- ment were significant but that language anxiety was influenced only indirectly and negatively through language achievement. Also, the PLS-SEM showed that our results have strong predcitive power indicating support for external validity. Implications: Our results show that instant messaging applications can be used to facilitate interest and achievement and to decrease anxiety. Furthermore, we are contributing to L2 methodological literature by using applications of PLS-SEM in experimental designs that can help researchers and practitioners of motivational processes.
Citation: Alamer, A., Al Khateeb, A., & Jeno, L. (2022). Using WhatsApp increases L2 students’ self-motivation and achievement, and decreases learning anxiety: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal12753
This study aimed to examine a theory-driven model to explain how language learner’s trait emotional intelligence (TEI) and effort as two learner character strengths predict learner enjoyment as a positive emotion and anxiety and boredom as two negative classroom emotions, and how these variables, collectively, predict resilience in language learning. The underlying relationship between these variables was tested via a comprehensive model within a positive psychology perspective using the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) approach. The paths in the final structural model indicated that L2 learner TEI did not significantly explain their resilience directly but rather completely indirectly through the mediation of learner negative and positive emotions. Learner effort, directly and indirectly, predicted L2 resilience and its predictive power in it was much larger than that of TEI. In addition, enjoyment and boredom directly influenced L2 resilience and also mediated the relationship between learner character strengths and resilience. Anxiety did not significantly predict learner L2 resilience directly since its influence was rather dependent on the role of enjoyment and boredom in L2 resilience. These findings widely support the claims within positive psychology domain that recognize the vital role of character strengths and learner emotions in enhancing L2 learner resilience.
Citation: Alrabai, F., & Alamer, A. (2022). The role of learner character strengths and classroom emotions in L2 resilience. Frontiers in Psychology. 13, 956216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.956216
Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) is an alternative method to the historically more commonly used covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) when analyzing the data using structural equation modeling (SEM). The article starts by introducing PLS-SEM to second language and education research, followed by a discussion of situations in which PLS-SEM should be the method of choice for structural equation modeling. It is argued that PLS-SEM is appropriate when complex models are analyzed, when prediction is the focus of the research – particularly out-of-sample prediction to support external validity, when data do not meet normal distribution assumptions, when formative constructs are included, and when higher-order constructs facilitate better understanding of theoretical models. The most up-to-date guidelines for applying PLS-SEM are provided, and step-by-step guidance is offered on how to apply the method using an R statistical package (i.e., SEMinR) that is available. An example is provided that shows how the results of PLS-SEM are interpreted and reported. We also make the data publicly available for readers to start learning PLS-SEM by replicating our findings. The paper concludes with important considerations for the utilization of SEM, especially PLS-SEM, in future L2 research.
Citation: Hair, J., & Alamer, A. (2022). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in second language and education research: Guidelines using an applied example. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. 1(3).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmal.2022.100027
The COVID-19 pandemic has spread throughout the world, leading to school and university closures. A practical response to minimize the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic depends largely on students’ voluntary adherence to government guidelines as well as their participation in volunteering activities and their willingness to take national responsibility. From the perspective of the self-determination theory (SDT) of motivation, it is postulated that for students to willingly participate in volunteering activities and take national responsibility, three basic psychological needs (BPN) of autonomy, competence, and relatedness must be fulfilled. We investigate the extent to which satisfying these needs is associated with an increase in searching for opportunities to volunteer, sense of national responsibility, and the quantity of volunteering made. A total of 215 Saudi male and female participants were involved in the study. Our analysis showed that the three needs are satisfied among the sample and that no gender differences existed. Regarding the correlation analysis, the results revealed that the three BPN were significantly correlated with the sense of national responsibility and searching for opportunities to volunteer but not with the quantity of volunteering made. The results highlighted the key role that the three BPN play in understanding Saudi students’ levels of participation in volunteering and taking on national responsibility. The results are discussed in light of the pandemic context.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Al Sultan, H. (2022). The role of basic psychological needs on volunteering, and national responsibility during the COVID-19 pandemic: Results from the context of Saudi Arabia. Frontiers in Education. 7, 944048 https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.944048
The present study aims to evaluate the role of ‘autonomous single language interest’ (ASLI) and assess its applicability and predictive validity for subsequent language achievement. ASLI, a refined version of ‘consistency of interest’ (CI) from grit, postulates that language students who have one autonomous language interest during their study (e.g., during the university setting) would achieve the language more successfully than those who have multiple language-unrelated interests/projects besides their language study. To evaluate this construct, 235 undergraduate English students were tracked over roughly one academic year. The validation of the single language interest (SLI) construct was achieved using exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM). The analyses indicated a reliable and valid scale of SLI. The predictive moderated model offered unique information about how SLI is related to L2 achievement after one academic year. The effects of SLI on L2 achievement are positive when students have SLI in an autonomous manner; hence the name ASLI, but negative when students’ have SLI in a controlled manner (e.g., with internal/external pressure). The effects hold constant while controlling for students’ initial language achievement. Conceptual and educational implications are discussed..
Citation: Alamer, A. (2022). Having a single language interest autonomously predicts L2 achievement: Addressing the predictive validity of L2 grit. System, 108, 102850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102850
It is well known that successful second language (L2) learners are motivated individuals. Accordingly, L2 researchers have tested the predictive power of different motivational constructs on language learning outcomes. However, this perspective appears to neglect the assessment of achievement as a predictor of future motivation. To assess this possibility, we first employed the latent growth curve model (LGCM) to evaluate the initial values and growth rates of the two variables. We further applied a newly developed statistical method, the random-intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), to study the causal relationship. A total of 226 language students were monitored for 17 weeks at three time points. The analysis showed an increasing trend in the association between the growth levels of both variables. However, students’ autonomous motivation at Time 1 appears to affect achievement at Time 2. Further, the second wave of the RI-CLPM illustrated that achievement at Time 2 impacted autonomous motivation at Time 3, while motivation failed to predict scores on achievement at Time 3.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Alrabai, F. (2022). The causal relationship between learner motivation and language achievement: New dynamic perspective. Applied Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amac035
Although researchers have found strong relationships between first language (L1) skills and second language (L2) anxiety, less is known about how L1 skills in primary school impact L2 anxiety years after L1 has been acquired. Previous research lacked evidence for the mediating role of L2 aptitude and L2 achievement in the relationship. This study applies structural equation modelling to examine pathways by which L1 skills are associated with L2 anxiety via the mediators. Sixty- five students were administered L1 skill measures from 1st–5th grades, then followed over 10 years when completing L2 courses in high school. We examined the model across six different ages and found the effect of L1 skills on L2 anxiety was indirect through L2 aptitude and L2 achievement, indicating the impact is better understood through the mediators. The effect of L2 achievement on L2 anxiety is direct, and large in magnitude. Results remained stable across different ages and invariant across gender.
Citation: Sparks, R., & Alamer, A. (2022). Long-term impacts of L1 language skills on L2 anxiety: The mediating role of language aptitude and L2 achievement. Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688221104392
Assessing the association between conceptual constructs are at the heart of quantitative research in educational and psychological research. Researchers apply different methods to the data to obtain results about the correlation between a set of variables. However, the question remains, how accurate are the results of the correlation obtained from these methods? Although various considerations should be taken to ensure accurate results, we focus on the types of analysis researchers apply to the data and discuss three methods most researchers use to obtain results about correlation. Particularly, we show how correlation results in bivariate correlation, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) differ substantially in size. We observe that methods that assume independence of the items often generate inflated factor correlations whereas methods that relax this assumption present uninflated, thus more accurate correlations. Because factor correlations are inflated in bivariate correlation and CFA, the discriminant validity of the constructs is often unattainable. In these methods, the size of the correlation can be very large and biased. We discuss the reasons for this variation and suggest the type of correlation that researchers should select and report.
Citation: Shao, K., Elahi Shirvan, M., & Alamer, A. (2022). How accurate is your correlation? Different methods derive different results and different interpretations. Frontiers in Psychology. 13, 901412. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901412
The spread of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) affected almost all countries in early 2020. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2020), over 60% of students worldwide have been affected by school closures. In such a situation, students’ motivation may be a valuable resource to promote sustained language learning. Thus, based on self-determination theory, the present study (N = 215 Saudi undergraduates) investigated how English as a foreign language students’ basic psychological need (BPN) satisfaction relates to their ability to continue learning during the pandemic (CLDP) through the mediating role of learning behavior. Using structural equation modelling, it was hypothesized that BPN satisfaction will directly and indirectly relate to CLDP and as students seek new opportunities to practice the language and utilize alternative options; however, BPN satisfaction was expected to negatively relate to CLDP through heightened anxiety about declining language proficiency. Generally, the results support the hypothesized indirect relationship between BPN satisfaction and CLDP by showing that the total indirect effects of autonomy and competence on CLDP were significant. This study contributes to our understanding of the usefulness of satisfying students’ BPN in second language learning during difficult situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Citation: Alamer, A. (2022). Basic psychological need satisfaction and continued language learning during a pandemic: A structural equation modelling approach. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning. 4(1). https://doi.org/10.52598/jpll/4/1/1.
The present study aims to introduce the advancement of the exploratory structural equation mod- eling (ESEM) and bifactor ESEM for construct validation purposes in second language research. It does so by applying the methods to the Basic Psychological Needs in Second Language (BPN- L2) Scale (Alamer, 2021a) to assess its factorial validity from a novel perspective. Bifactor ESEM is useful in situations where the theory postulates two layers of constructs (global and specific constructs). A comparison was made between four CFA and ESEM models, and the bifactor ESEM was the model of choice because it provided sufficient details about the multidimensionality of the BPN-L2 scale which accounted for the specific constructs (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and the general construct (i.e., the basic psychological needs) and allowed for the assessment of convergent, discriminant, and predictive (criterion) validity from a new perspec- tive. Predictive (criterion-related) validity was assessed using the structural bifactor ESEM by showing that the specific factors explained autonomous motivation differently compared to the global BPN factor, thus confirming the presence of imbalance at the specific factors level. The study provided guidelines in applying bifactor ESEM and presented an applied example with the syntax required to run the models in Mplus. The findings showed that the BPN-L2 scale is reli- able and valid through the bifactor ESEM solution and that CFA solutions failed to support the measurement model.
Citation: Alamer, A. (2022). Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and bifactor ESEM for construct validation purposes: Guidelines and applied example. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 1(1) 100005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmal.2022.100005
This study offers methodological synergy in the examination of factorial structure in second language (L2) research. It illustrates the effectiveness and flexibility of the recently developed exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) method, which integrates the advantages of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) into one complete measurement model. Two sets of data were collected using the L2 Passion Scale, which measures a dualistic model of passion. Study 1 participants were 220 L2 students. A comparison was made between the CFA and the ESEM models. The results demonstrated the superiority of the ESEM method relative to CFA in terms of better goodness-of-fit indices and realistic correlated factors. These results were replicated in another sample of 272 L2 students, providing support for the predictive validity using a structural ESEM model. Guidelines are provided and Mplus syntax files (codes) are included to help analysts apply the methods. We also make the data available publicly. Overall, this research demonstrated the usefulness of ESEM for examining the construct, discriminant, and convergent validity of L2 scales over CFA.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Marsh, H. (2022). Exploratory structural equation modeling in second language research: An applied example using the dualistic model of passion. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000863
2021
The present study aimed to assess the construct validity of the Self-Determination Theory in Second Language Scale (SDT-L2; Alamer, 2021). The study involved 266 undergraduate students learning English as a second language (L2) in Saudi Arabia. The factorial structure of the SDT-L2 was examined using the advanced bifactor-Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) method. The scale provided adequate composite reliability and the bifactor ESEM provided unique details about the multidimensionality of the scale which accounted for the specific constructs (i.e., intrinsic, identified, introjected, and external regulations) and the general constructs (i.e., autonomous motivation and controlled motivation), and allowed for assessment of convergent and discriminant validity. Predictive validity was established by showing that autonomous motivation significantly predicted L2 performance, while controlled motivation did not. Overall, the study demonstrated the usefulness of the bifactor ESEM for construct validation purposes and the results showed that SDT-L2 is a valid scale to assess students’ L2 motivation based on SDT perspective.
Citation: Alamer, A. (2021). Construct validation of self-determination theory in second language scale: The bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling approach. Frontiers in Psychology. 12, 732016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.732016
While language anxiety is known to be a strong predictor of the second language (L2) achievement for decades, there has been a relative lack of empirical attention to establishing which one – anxiety or achievement – influences the other. The present study, based on a cross-lagged panel analysis, examined the causal relationships between language anxiety and L2 achievement, each of which was measured at three times points across 17 weeks. The results supported the directional relationship from L2 achievement at Time 2 to language anxiety at Time 3 while the opposite directional relationship from language anxiety at Time 2 to L2 achievement at Time 3 was not supported. Thus, our results suggest that language achievement precedes anxiety and not the other way round. The moderation analysis further sheds light on the importance of the earlier L2 achievement in the development of anxiety later on, by understanding learners’ motivational profiles. That is, learners with high autonomous motivation and high achievement at Time 1 exhibited a further decrease in anxiety at Time 3. On the other hand, learners with high autonomous motivation but low achievement showed a higher level of anxiety at Time 3. Overall, the present study makes a noteworthy contribution to one of the most debatable issues in the field and concludes with some practical implications for L2 educators.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Lee, J. (2021). Language achievement predicts anxiety and not the other way around: A cross-lagged panel analysis approach. Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211033694
The relationship between language anxiety and self-determined motivation has been examined from various aspects in the applied linguistics domain. However, the direction of the relationship tend to disagree. Some studies report positive correlation whereas others (and in most cases) show negative correlation. To address this issue, the present study attempted to evaluate in depth the relationship between these two variables. We first qualitatively examined the types of language anxiety students face during learning, and then assessed how motivational variables based on self-determination theory can predict these identified types of anxiety. The results showed that sense of competence and relatedness negatively predicted certain types of anxiety while controlled motivation positively predicted only the general language anxiety. However, perception of autonomy and autonomous motivation did not predict any sub-types of language anxiety while sense of relatedness positively predicted psychological anxiety. The findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical and educational implications for language learning.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Almulhim, F. (2021). The interrelation between language anxiety and self-determined motivation; A mixed methods approach. Frontiers in Education. 6, 618655. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.618655
The present study aimed to empirically examine the validity of grit among language learners and its relation to vocabulary know- ledge. Grit is defined as a trait that is characterised by a tendency to be passionate about and persevere towards the achievement of long-term goals. A newly developed questionnaire, L2-Grit Scale, which assesses perseverance of effort and consistency of interest in language learning was used. The construct validity was evaluated, and bi-factor CFA was supported. The convergent and divergent validity of the grit constructs were tested against opera- tionalisations of related motivational constructs. The results sug- gest that the L2-Grit Scale is, reliable, valid and suitable for use in L2 research. With regard to predictive validity, grit has shown to have a non-significant direct effect on later vocabulary know- ledge. Rather, initial grit was only indirectly associated with later vocabulary knowledge through the mediation role of later endorsement of grit.
Citation: Alamer, A. (2021). Grit and language learning: construct validation of L2-Grit scale and its relation to later vocabulary knowledge. Educational Psychology, 41(5), 544-562. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1867076
The study of language learners’ motivation has long been considered a key, determining factor of success in second/ foreign language acquisition. Based on self-determination theory (SDT), the more autonomously motivated learners are, the better they engage in an activity. To sustain auton- omous motivation, the learners’ basic psychological needs (BPN) of autonomy, competence, and relatedness should be satisfied. Nevertheless, the role of these three components and their relation to autonomous motivation in the mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) context has not yet been addressed in the literature. Therefore, a social net- working mobile application (WhatsApp) has been used to explore how teachers’ informal use of such an application relates to an increase in students’ motivation. A quasi-experimental design was adopted for two groups of Saudi university students enrolled in the English language department at two major universities (N=447). The structural model revealed a significant improvement in the effects of Time 1 autonomy on Time 2 autonomous motivation as well as in the effects of Time 1 autonomous motivation on Time 2 autonomous motivation exclusively in the experimental group. The two-time repeated measure of ANOVA substan- tiated the increase in autonomous motivation exclusively among students in the experimental group. This study con- tributed to greater recognition of the advantages and chal- lenges of applying WhatsApp as a tool of MALL in the educational system.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Al Khateeb, A. (2021). Effects of using the WhatsApp application on language learners motivation: A controlled investigation using structural equation modelling. Computer Assisted Language Learning. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1903042
2020
2019
The aim of the present study was to develop a motivational process model illustrating how Saudi students’ Basic Psychological Needs (BPN) were linked to their second language (L2) achievement in English. Motivational theories that have been extensively researched in Educational Psychology were employed as possible mediators of the BPN-L2 achievement relationship. Those theories were: Self-determination Theory (SDT), Goal Orientation (GO) and Motivational Emotion (ME). The final model suggested that the temporal order of the mediational mechanism in explaining L2 achievement should be [BPN / GO / ME / SDT], indicating that (a) students’ motivation starts with fulfillment of basic psychological needs, which (b) sets the foundation for students’ goal setting orientation, which in turn (c) contributes to learners’ emotions in learning. Further, this study support (d) the importance of the theoretical stream of Self-determination Theory, as it was the most directly related to L2 achievement.
Citation:Alamer, A., & Lee, J. (2019). A motivational process model explaining L2 Saudi students’ achievement of English. System. 87, 102133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102133
The study of language learners’ motivation has long been considered a key, determining factor of success in second/foreign language acquisition. Based on self-determination theory (SDT), the more autonomously motivated learners are, the better they engage in an activity. To sustain autonomous motivation, the learners’ basic psychological needs (BPN) of autonomy, competence, and relatedness should be satisfied. Nevertheless, the role of these three components and their relation to autonomous motivation in the mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) context has not yet been addressed in the literature. Therefore, a social networking mobile application (WhatsApp) has been used to explore how teachers’ informal use of such an application relates to an increase in students’ motivation. A quasi-experimental design was adopted for two groups of Saudi university students enrolled in the English language department at two major universities (N = 447). The structural model revealed a significant improvement in the effects of Time 1 autonomy on Time 2 autonomous motivation as well as in the effects of Time 1 autonomous motivation on Time 2 autonomous motivation exclusively in the experimental group. The two-time repeated measure of ANOVA substantiated the increase in autonomous motivation exclusively among students in the experimental group. This study contributed to greater recognition of the advantages and challenges of applying WhatsApp as a tool of MALL in the educational system.
Citation: Alamer, A., & Al Khateeb, A. (2023). Effects of using the WhatsApp application on language learners motivation: A controlled investigation using structural equation modelling. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36, 149–175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1903042
Although studies have consistently found negative correlations between second lan- guage (L2) anxiety and L2 achievement, the anxiety concept is criticized for the fail- ure to consider confounding variables, particularly first language (L1) achievement, in the relationship between language anxiety and language achievement. Also, past studies tend to rely on cross-sectional data to conclude causality. To assess long- term causal relationships between L1 and L2 achievement, the study used structural equation modeling to examine pathways by which L1 achievement is associated with L2 reading anxiety after two years via several mediators: L1 working mem- ory, L1 print exposure, and L1 metalinguistic knowledge; L2 aptitude (MLAT); and L2 reading, writing, and listening comprehension. Students (n=293) in a U.S. secondary school were administered these measures and followed through first-year Spanish. Findings showed the effect of L1 achievement on later L2 reading anxiety was direct and indirect through L2 aptitude, L2 achievement, and L1 metalinguis- tic knowledge. Effects of L2 achievement and L1 metalinguistic knowledge on L2 reading anxiety were direct. An out-of-sample analysis for model prediction power supported the external validity of the study results. We recommend that teachers and learners deal with L1/L2 skills, rather than anxiety per se, in order to reduce sense of L2 reading anxiety.
Citation: Sparks, R., & Alamer, A. (2023). How does first language achievement impact second language reading anxiety? Exploration of mediator variables. Reading and Writing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10410-2
